A Restaurant at the End of the Universe by Douglas Adams

This is the story in continuation. The Restaurant at the end of the Universe begins from where The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy ended. Ford Perfect, Trillian, Arthur Dent and Zaphod Beeblebrox are suddenly attacked by a Vogon ship, as they left the planet Magrathea.A cup of Tea had caused the problem, the computer remained jammed to put through that difficult demand, and the Improbability Drive failed to function. Destiny played its part, Zaphod Beeblebrox, the Fourth ancestor of Zaphod’s saves them.Zaphod and Marvin disappear and reappear at the Offices of the Guide on Ursa Minor Beta. When they reach the fifteenth floor, half of the building is suddenly lifted off of the ground by Frogstar Fighters. Zaphod passes through and experiences many a strange places and events and finally finds a space liner abandoned 9 centuries ago. The passengers in it are still alive through an intense life support system. They are yet to receive the supply of ordered lemon-soaked pap er napkins.The situation is further confounded with the confusing situation about numbers, arithmetical calculations and the English syllables. The shrunk Heart of Gold in the jacket pocket of Zaphod, makes this mystery character more mysterious. His friends emerge out of it and are assimilated into it, under strange procedures. The story ends with Zaphod and Trillian return to the Heart of Gold, and it is commandeered by Zarniwoop.The writer creates one impossible situation after the other and in stories of this genre, suspense is the natural outcome. Adam’s wit and humor add more punch to the storyline. The fight between the computers is comparable between the fight amongst the human beings.   My reaction to the climax of the story is, let more such stories come out from the pen of Douglas Adams.b) Setting: Discuss how the setting (time and place) enhanced the storyThe objective of the characters in the book is to reach the restaurant at the end of universe. A time wrap t echnology is put into operation; they dine and go back to resume their normal activities, at the same time the end of universe continues to happen.The trips can be made daily. But they are difficult, the robots and computers are not co-operative. Odd situations arise, as the computers are created with emotions and intelligence. An interesting part of the story is that an order for lemon-soaked napkins remained unexecuted for over 900 years in a spaceship. Some of our slow-moving government departments need to take lessons from this episode.c) Characterization: Discuss the characters, their motives, your reactions to them:The characters are enjoyable. One can experience lots of fun and satire in the writings of Adams. The characters provide first grade entertainment. When there is no logic in the plot, it is futile to expect that the characters will be logical.Reading this novel means to travel on a â€Å"Travel as you like† ticket; or sailing in a rudderless boat. The sum and substance of the story is like the mind of a directionless and destination less youth! The ‘mental’ condition of most of the characters is like that of an ejected pilot from a crashed plane-you don’t know when you will land or whether you will land safely! But they are no ordinary comical situations.There is an element of genius right through the entire story. Just turn the next page-the contents of the previous page will make that happen with you! The characters have a lasting quality about them and they faithfully discharge the duties and responsibilities for which they are created. As compared to human beings, they do better in this respect.d) Themes: What were some of the issues or lessons that emerged from the novel?Man’s obsession with making machines and dependence upon advanced technological equipments, will not do well to him in the long run. They will complicate and confuse his life and take away the charm from his activities. Adams brings life into the machines. Like human beings they to have emotions.Adams has given the example of Elevators (Sirius Cybernetics Corporation Happy Vertical People Transporters) which are tired of their monotonous job of going up and down.Adams describes the distress of the Elevators, thus: â€Å"Not unnaturally, many elevators imbued with intelligence and precognition become terribly frustrated with the mindless business of going up and down, up and down, experimented briefly with the notion of going sideways, as sort of an existential protest, demanded participation in the decision making process and finally took to squatting in basements sulking.† (Adams, 1980, p.47)   –an apt comparison to the demands of the labor force engaged in doing monotonous and repetitive jobs. No satisfaction, no joy in such types of work!e) Style: Discuss what was unique or interesting about the writer’s language or style. Sometimes dream sequences or flashbacks, symbols, or vivid imagery e nhance a writer’sThe plight of Marvin, the robot evokes sympathy. He is capable of any function; he is smart and strong but remains depressed. He possesses amazing language processing skills and he utilizes it to narrate his mental torture. He is neglected by everyone; he has no solutions to his own woes.The situation where an unarmed Marvin succeeds in defeating the ruthlessly powerful battle robot looks as if it is a real-life situation. It speaks about the vivid imagination of the writer. In spite of the frightening situations created that make one’s heart throb and palpitate, the novel is a comedy. That makes it highly readable.

Teen Suicide…Enough Is Enough

Teen Suicide†¦Enough Is Enough One day I will be getting a tattoo on my right shoulder that contains the phrase, â€Å"Live For More! † I want the words to be in an old-fashioned, yet fancy, script and the letters will be both black and bold. My reason behind that specific font is to make the phrase stand out as much as possible, so that whoever reads my arm can see exactly how meaningful life really is to me, as a teenager living in today’s highly competitive, responsible, and stress filled world! Teen suicide attempts and completions are at an all time high in these present days and there are many reasons contributing to its growth as years progress. I am sick of adolescents ending potentially happy and successful lives. Now is the time to address not only its growth and statistics throughout the years, but also to reveal the underlining causes and warning signs of suicide. Essentially, it is also the most opportune moment to discuss the many possible life saving solutions to end this serious, yet popular, problem. It is official that today teen suicide is at an all time high. Surveys have shown that more than 25 percent of high school students and 10 percent of college students have seriously considered taking certain actions to end their lives. This unfortunate problem has grown a rate four times that of 1950. In present days, girls are about twice as likely to attempt suicide, whereas boys are actually four times more likely to complete the act. To prove wrong the assumption that the problem is mostly based upon economic terms, statistics show that rich teens kill themselves as often as poor or middle-income adolescents. Statistics even state, â€Å"Today, an estimated 276,000 kids between the ages of 14 and 17 try killing themselves each year, and more than 5,000 succeed† (Roleff). Studies also show that, at one time or another, every person has already thought of or will think about suicide. These numbers are very disturbing, and yet they only partially convey the ultimate tragedy that each teen suicide victim truly contributes to the aching hearts of their family and community. The only possible way to stop this travesty starts with understanding the pain that the suicide holder possesses and to force them to understand that the juice really is not worth the squeeze. Due to these statistics, a culmination of confusion tends to ensue. The big question is, why are teenagers so willing and eager to end the most valuable thing that a person can possibly possess, which happens to be their life? I am sure you have asked yourself this question once before, I know I have. The truth is that stress is the most contributing factor to suicide. The fact is that growing up is more stressful in present times than it’s ever been before. Other reasons include the death of a loved one, overpopulation and the break down of family, obesity, increased parental pressure to excel, and the easy access to drugs, alcohol, and firearms. Personally, I view romantic relationships to also be a huge concern within this problem. It is commonly seen, that following a break-up, teens choose suicide to impose a point or to just cause the most severe form of guilt. Stress is the number one cause of depression. â€Å"Suicide is a major danger associated with depression. Because of the associated shame and secrecy with suicide, many fail to get or give help. † (Carpenter 353). There are three main warning signs and symptoms pertaining to the act of suicide. The first is behavioral changes, which include changes in eating and sleeping habits, social isolation, drinking or drug use, or the giving away of valued possessions. The second is personal changes, which includes the appearance of common moods associated with anger, anxiety, or depression. These moods lead to aggressiveness, hopelessness, hypersensitivity, boredom, or difficulty concentrating. The final symptom includes health problems, such as frequent headaches, weight loss or gain, or fatigue. â€Å"It has been proven that two-thirds of those who commit suicide give some warning signs first† (Gorman). It is really up to us†¦as friends, relatives, teachers, and parents to recognize these signals and symptoms. We must all work together to react and respond quickly and strongly, person to person! Furthermore, once we all understand the warnings and overall reasons behind teen suicide, many steps can be taken to prevent future cases. Overall the ultimate aim is to make suicide more difficult and less likely. Researchers say that suicidal impulses usually last only about fifteen minutes and making it past that time may be just enough to defuse the whole situation. This is obviously easier said than done! First of all, never keep suicide a secret. If there is ever suspicion, immediately seek parental assistance. â€Å"The use of a therapist is the most popular solution, yet sometimes money is a huge issue. In that case, get somebody involved whom you can fully trust, that will charge very little to nothing† (Manning). Another very simple prevention is the denying of availability of prescription drugs and alcohol by keeping them out of easy access. Since about half of all young people who kill themselves do it with guns kept at home, one solution is for parents to keep guns hidden and unloaded, with bullets stored separately† (Roleff). My personal solution would be that of bringing about the most apparent, yet hidden, importance and splendors within life. I would forcefully exp lain and emphasize that it is a blessing and privilege to be alive, and that people must make the most out of what they have. Of course it is easy enough to just give up, but there is really no point. Once you are gone then you can never again see the beauty of a sunset or the magic of growth in all living things, never again feel the excitement of a shooting star, never again smell the sweet scent of spring air, or never again experience the splendor of romance. After one is all said and done, then there is no coming back! Finally, I would ask once again†¦is the juice really worth the squeeze? Now is time for teens to stop committing the morbid sin of suicide! Cases have grown drastically throughout the years, mainly due to all of the stress that teens are forced to face each and everyday. The only true way to stop this grievous problem is to eliminate all depressants, such as alcohol and drugs, and to promote motivation and confidence to succeed no matter what obstacle stands in the way. The key is to live for more†¦to take what you have and make the most that you possibly can, which I do everyday of my life! If you ever prevent somebody from committing suicide, he or she may be upset with you for a while. But chances are they won’t be upset for too long. At least they will have a lifetime to change their mind!

Music Performance Ethnography Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Music Performance Ethnography - Essay Example The Ultra Music Festival Background to the festival The ultra music festival is an outdoor music event that gets held in the city of Miami in Florida. It is a music festival that entails a weekend of electronic music at the Bayfront Park in Miami. The event gets held on the second weekend of every March in every year. The event takes three days from Friday to Sunday. This year the event took place in two consecutive weekends as a way of celebrating its 15th anniversary (Cohn 46). The Ultra Music Festival got started by two business partners, Rusell Faibsich and Alex Omes in 1999. In its inauguration year, the event got held for one day on the south beach in Miami. In the following year, it got relocated to Bayfront Park in the city of Miami. This was due to the large number of people who attended the first event. The event gets sponsored by the Winter Music Conference. During the festival in this year, I happened to have attended one of the two weekends during which it got held. The performers The performers at the ultra music festival were well over 200. They wore civilian clothes but the art in their design could be recognized. As it is with many musicians, the aspect of standing different from others could also be traced. Overall, the performers dressed in a way that it was easy identifying them among the audience as they sought to get an interactive platform with the audience. Prior to their individual performance, the performers looked relaxed, probably reserving their energy for the electric performers each was to hold (Scott & David 21). Some of the performers had come from outside the USA. However, most of them were local artists. The diversity of the performers had an added advantage to the festival. Among the performers were DJs who took turns in the work. All the performers could be said to be established musicians and top DJs in the country. Establishing them by names could, however, be difficult considering their numbers. The event involved the use of live per formance instruments. These instruments got changed with time depending on the performing artist. There were also music systems installed at strategic positions all over the Bayfront Park (Schmidt & Gretchen 198). The park at some point looked like a collection of an electronic factory. Some performers came with their instruments on stage while others used the ones already installed on the stage. Vocal music got included in the performances. Most of the lyrics seemed to have a message for the audience. Most of them praised the different successful people in the city of Miami. They are those that condemned the social crimes in the city. Some could even be seen to be going to the extent of narrating personal experiences on the difficulty experienced by the poor in the USA. There is also another category of music that praised the music festival itself as the greatest on the planet. Whether this is correct or not, it cannot be clearly established. The Audience The size of the audience c ould be approximated to be well over 330,000 according to figures released immediately after the festival. The audience got made to the larger extent by the residents of Miami. There were also people from other states in the USA. The event attracted some foreigners. The culture of the people at the festival could, therefore, be described as very diverse. Several cases of social misbehavior could be noted.

Reading Response Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 21

Reading Response - Essay Example Germany hoped these points would be the basis for the treaty. However this hope was belied and the terms of the treaty were so harsh on Germany that it finally resulted in a more destructive and horrific war. America had come out of the war virtually unscathed. However the people of Britain and France were devastated by the destruction caused by the war and in no mood to forgive Germany for it. So it came about that Germany was held solely responsible for the misery and death caused to millions, and the terms of the treaty were particularly humiliating to Germans. Besides, Britain and France had rich colonies that added to their coffers, and therefore clauses that held that determination of their status must have â€Å"the interests of the populations†; were contrary to their interests. Every nation naturally looked at the treaty with its own interests foremost. France wanted the territories of Alsace and Lorraine with a view to safeguarding its borders from future German attacks. In this way Germany lost land to France, Belgium, Denmark, Czechoslovakia and Poland. The victors of the war were the ones who drafted the treaty of Versailles and the defeated nations were not asked to contribute to the drafting of the treaty. The treaty therefore looked after the interests of the victors and since Germany was blamed for the havoc caused by the war and held solely responsible for it; she had to bear the burden of war reparation and cutting down of her armed forces as well as losing territories to other nations. The most important of the fourteen points was the last - that of setting up an international body to maintain peace among the nations of the world. This was set up in the form of the League of Nations. However, Wilson was unable to convince the Americans to join the league and it proved to be an ineffective and toothless body. It led to more friction among nations

CELLULAR PATHOLOGY- Staining protocols Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

CELLULAR PATHOLOGY- Staining protocols - Essay Example Several tissue components can be demonstrated by this stain. It is an important diagnostic tool in most clinical settings. Substances that consist of glycol groups or alkylamino and amino derivatives are normally oxidized to form. An insoluble pink/magenta chromogen is later formed after these dialdehydes Periodic acid combines with the Schiff’s reagent. In tissue sections PAS positive substances include: Amyloid, cartilage, collagen, mucins, glycogen, and basement membranes among others, together with some organisms such as fungi. Method: As per the hand-out Results: Figure 1: shows Glycogen detection in the liver with PAS Figure 2: Shows PAS stain with diastase in the Hepatocytes Detection of the liver with glycogen storage disease. Figure 3: Represents mucins PAS stain (Intestine Alcain Blue). Figure 4: Shows Kidney tissue section, with Bowman’s capsule. Discussion i) Glycogen Most carbohydrates are broken down by the body from the foods we eat; it is further convert ed to a sugar type referred to as glucose. The main fuel source for the cells is glucose. When glucose is no longer needed by the body for energy, it is stored in the muscles and liver. The glucose stored consists of many connected glucose molecules referred to as glycogen. When a quick energy boost is required by the body in cases where the body is not receiving any glucose from food, there is break down of glycogen that results to glucose release into the bloodstream to generate fuel for the cells.( Knebelmann et al,1996) Glycogen demonstration in tissue sections, for example for the liver section tissues, it can be used to differentiate between normal liver tissue and the abnormal liver tissue by looking at the morphology. The liver is the main organ that stores glycogen. Any observation made after staining of the liver tissue that is different from typical liver tissue staining will indicate that the tissue is not normal hence diseased. For example, liver and fatty liver cells, scar tissue (fibroblasts) can be used to differentiate between normal and abnormal liver tissues( hepatocytes) after staining because of the absence of glycogen in normal cells. The diastase use in enzymes digestion of glycogen acts as a control. Hence, two slides comparison can show an area occupied by glycogen. PAS Stains glycogen but there can be pre-digestion of tissue with diastase in order to remove glycogen. Clinical Implication of PAS Stain of Glycogen We have various GSD types.   Individuals with GSD are born with it.   In GSD, there is storage of abnormal glycogen amount in the liver. For an individual with GSD: The liver is not able to regulate the use of glucose and glycogen. Certain enzymes involved in the regulation of the conversion of glucose into glycogen or glucose release from glycogen are not present.  Ã‚   At least 10 different GSDs types do exist. These types are placed in categories based on the missing enzyme. The GSD forms that are most common includes : types I, III and IV. One in every 20,000 individuals can have a type of GSD. GSD I, also referred to as von Gierke condition: Is caused by enzyme Glucose-6-Phosphatase deficiency.   GSD III, also referred to as Cori disease:  Is caused by debrancher enzyme deficiency. This leads to the body forming molecules of glycogen with abnormal structure. This unusual structure prevents the breakdown of glycogen into free glucose as well.   GSD IV also referred to as amylopectinosis:   increased glycogen amount in the tissues is not experienced. Instead, the building up

Social change idea proposal Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Social change idea proposal - Essay Example Earlier on, the pressure arising from mental problems in children was less and normally teachers tended to look the other way, reprimand or counsel such children. However, these tendencies cannot work anymore. (Burke, Robert W & Myers, Barbara Kimes). The heavy curriculum and peer pressure requires a student to perform despite his or her difficult background. On the other hand, teachers find it difficult to perform their teaching duties as well as take on the role of counselors. If it were a question of a few handful of students beset with mental health, it would not have bothered the teachers so much. However, the number of such students is quite high and is increasing. Moreover, children are exposed to teachers much of their time. Hence, there is the need to integrate a relationship that goes beyond teaching alone. The child must be able to see the teacher as his or her guide and friend. The responsibility of the teacher in developing such a relationship is quite high although it is possible to achieve within reasonable time. It is equally important for parents to make themselves available to their children so that there is no gap which may prove debilitating later on. The child is only the tip of the iceberg in the social environment where repeated failure to attend to the child’s needs have pushed the child to gangs, drugs and violence. In such scenario the values taught and practiced by teachers challenge children to notice them and follow suit. The child’s background plays a vital role in the assessment of his mental health in the classroom. It is mainly children from broken families who suffer mental difficulties (Lipsett, Anthea). Irrespective of the origin of the problem, the school has become the place where the child finds opportunity to nurture and grow. In the school, the teacher plays the pivotal role in shaping the child’s life. So, even if the school has separate counselors to deal

Human Resource Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words - 15

Human Resource Management - Essay Example or recruiting able and established staff is very much there since every organization or company for that matter wants to achieve efficiency and effectiveness when it comes to getting the things done in a quick manner. There are instances when employees have been known to prolong things just because they do not feel to be in the mood to do so. This is a definitive statement on the part of the employees that they were recruited wrongly at the time of their hiring and the organization did indeed make a mistake in choosing such a worker over other options that were available to it all over the world. It has been seen that at times, the top line personnel present in offices delegate jobs and assignments to their sub-ordinates without even thinking that the same might not be the correct manner and mode of action as to go about carrying out the tasks and responsibilities. They think that delegation would prosper a sense of getting more work within the sub-ordinates who themselves are pretty much occupied with their already assigned tasks and jobs. This is hence not the correct manner in which things should be done and hence a need has to be chalked out to ramify the very same problem. The best possible diversity that could be made in this regard is to appoint top line managers who understand the psyche of the people working under him or her or on the same level as his so that he or she can get a grasp as to what employees usually are best suited at and what they do not prefer under certain strenuous conditions in the office place environment. As a consequence, being able to do more work is definitely considered a plus and an added advantage for an employee but this should not, under any level, exceed his or her capabilities and skill sets. He or she must be assigned the amount of work which is proportionate with his or her pay, already set working conditions and more so the skills on the basis of which he or she was selected in the first place. Diversity therefore could

Governance and Business Strategy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Governance and Business Strategy - Essay Example Developing countries normally tend to deal with institutional, social, political, and cultural obstacles in order to achieve sustainable growth rather than focusing on anti-corruption strategies. Data from developed countries indicate their successful stance against corruption practices. The objective of this paper lies with discussing how corruption as a social evil would impede the economic development of a country. According to the view of International Organization of Employers (2009), though corruption is common in all areas of daily life, public sector is found to be the most prospective area for corruption practices (The fight against bribery and corruption). It has been identified that corruption practices exist even in democratic countries where political power is based on clientalism. To illustrate, in democratic countries, politicians take undue advantages of their power and get easy access to public resources. Naturally, the exploitation of social resources would lead to economic downturn as the nation is forced to substitute adequate resources to the exploited ones. Cartier-Bresson (as cited in Dearden, 2000) has put forward five economic conditions which amplify corruption practices within a society. ... This diversion cost indicates a non-beneficial expense as it would not contribute to the economic interests of the nation. Similarly, when corruption practices increase in a nation, it is reflected as the inefficiency of legal system; and thereby potential investors would hesitate to invest in public ventures. From the perspective of Endogenous Growth Models, inefficiency may become the direct cause of decline in investment because investors always give priority to the rate of return from their investment. In the opinion of Coupet (n.d), The Neoclassical Growth Model precisely indicates that misallocation of investment would check the uninterrupted and steady level flow of income, which in turn impedes the overall growth of the nation. Sometimes, corruption prevention costs constitute a major percentage of nation’s total expenditure and it adversely affects the economic growth of the nation. When the corruption prevention costs increase, the government may cut down various fis cal benefits such as employee wages and other subsidies. Moreover, it may impose additional taxes on different industrial sectors too. All such regulations would seriously impinge on the national economic development. For instance, when the employee wages are reduced to maintain corruption costs, employees normally get discontented and that may cause immense brain drain. Murali (2008) argues that in the modern business environment human power is the most powerful weapon without which no organization can expand further. Therefore, the migration of skilled and qualified employees to foreign markets would certainly weaken every developmental initiative of a country. Similarly, when government imposes additional taxes on

Tim O Brien Injustice Essay Example for Free

Tim O Brien Injustice Essay Justice is the pursuit of right, the elevation of goodness, and the elimination of evil; however, such lucid definitions often lack substance when stood up to the tests of reality. Injustice is the denial of rights and the lack of morality for the embracement of barbarism. When looking for injustices in the world, what most readily comes to mind are violent crimes? Murder, theft, and rape are domestic injustices commonly recognized, but injustices, like reality, exist in perception. Therefore, to deem someone or something unjust, first agreement upon its definition must be established. When the United States declared her independence, we perceived the unjust indignities to be clear; however, to the militant king, the refusal to pay his taxes was injustice and the nullification of his law was the warrant for war. When such implied meanings come in to play, one has to determine what is just. In order to eliminate war, first all nations must outline the true meaning of â€Å"injustice† and find suitable solutions for reparation. The most diligent participant of war is the injustice done upon both sides, the backing of both by god, and the misconception that both will prevail due to their side being right and just. These differing views of injustice and justice are what cause the eventual degradation of war. (JRSOT) Tim O’Brien takes account of the injustices of war when he refers to opposing emotion and feelings. â€Å"The beauty was spelling binding as the horrific napalm burned the forest to the ground. (O’Brien) The contradicting impression, of awe and beauty combined with that of horror and grotesqueness leads one to a sense of immeasurable injustice experienced by those fighting the war. A war he hated, he still found the thrill of combat alluring, even as the fear of death overwhelmed his body, forcing his feet forward by quivering will. The emotional damage was the injustice upon the men, due to the memories that will haunt them forever. â€Å"There were many bodies with real faces, bu t I was young then and I was afraid to look. And not, twenty year later, I’m left with faceless responsibility and faceless grief. † (pg. 180, O’Brien) Injustice once more finds its discontinuous meaning bearing not only upon willful acts of corruptness, but upon the unsuspecting soldiers of piece, fighting to stay alive, sane, and together. Reflecting upon the travesty of war, one begins to realize, aside from the soldiers of opposition, there remain innocent victims, caught between the fences, killed, slaughtered, and mercilessly hunted for their unfortunate occupation of a warzone. The injustices, done upon these innocent bystanders are just one of the many costs of war. Families lose their members as well their homes. (Incite Magazine) â€Å"The old guy walked with a limp, slow and stooped over, but he knew where the safe spots were and where you had to be careful and where even if you were careful you could end up like popcorn. † (pg. 33, O’Brien) The devastation brought about by war, affects not only economic, physical, and emotional well being, but it leaves a disastrous scar upon the land. Following the Vietnam War, orange gas, a carsogenic toxin, was widely used as a biological weapon. This weapon, though severely lethal to humans, also caused permanent damage to the environment. Vietnam is of a tropical climate. It is clothed in towering rain forests and blossoming clover fields. (Incite Magazine) Animals run abundantly through the undeveloped slopes and the shadowing forest floor. Industry has destroyed many of the once beautifully adorned civilizations of the four legged and winged; however, the noxious pollution released by industry in Vietnam has been minor compared to the devastasion caused by war. In every war the assault falls most heavily on the countryside. In Germany, during WWII, mortar shells redecorated the hill sides, and tanks rolled on, crushing the fertility from the land. The chemicals released to combat each other brought with them the collateral damage. When the war was over, thousands of lives had been taken and millions of dollars had been squandered. The environment has always recovered from our stupidities. How long, though, before will it be unable to repair the atrocities of our reckless ways? Tim O’Brien refers to the Vietnam War as something incomprehensible, incalculable, and exclusive to those that lived it, breathed it, and carried it home. He attempts to convey the ambiguity of war and embellished story-telling as reflecting the actuality of combat. In order to truly understand the experience of war, one must find fiction in order to convey it properly. (O’Brien) The enemy could melt into ice, and consolidate before your very eye: such was the terrible progression of the war, and the fiction that crept into reality. The surreal seeming of war, is mixed with the reality of it. When written upon paper the occurrences recounted transcend reality, but, in actuality, the comprehension of the event, in the mind of the soldier, was, in fact, experienced that very way; as in a dream characterized by the cinematic embellishment of fiction. The contradictions that he depicts, â€Å"it was atrocious; it was thrilling,† is proof of the injustice of war, and the injustices he felt were around him. â€Å"There were time in my life when I couldn’t feel much, not sadness or pity or passion, and somehow I blamed this place for what I had become, and I blamed it for taking away the person I had once been. â€Å"(pg. 185, O’Brien)

People and IT Essay Example for Free

People and IT Essay Both employees of organizations and managers are today increasingly concerned about the capacity of organizations to adapt to rapidly changing environmental conditions. The rate of change in the technological, economic, political, and sociocultural environments is picking up speed, and organizations are, therefore, finding it more and more important to figure out how to adapt. What is happening in a number of organizations is more fundamental still, however, in that either what the organization does is fundamentally dependent on information technology and/or its capacity to compete with other organizations in the field is fundamentally affected by the use made of information technology (IT). Ever since at least 1958, when Leavitt and Whisler (1958) predicted that the use of IT would lead to the demise of middle management, researchers have speculated about the effects of IT on organizations. Even though many of the early predictions have not come true, new kinds of information technology are now increasingly affecting how people work, often in ways that we are just beginning to understand. As the cost of the underlying technology continues to drop, IT is almost certain to become more and more pervasive and may even make possible new kinds of work organization that we can as yet only barely imagine. This work discusses the relationship between the use of IT and people. The paper reviews theories that can help analyze organizations, technology, and the link between the two. It also reviews the results of empirical studies of the use of IT to determine what changes have been made in the past and can be expected in the future. Our goal here is both to predict inevitable impacts and to discover possible outcomes, both good and bad. Our ability to develop technology itself is probably more advanced than our theories of organizations, but our understanding of the uses of technology is probably behind our understanding of organizations. It is still difficult to identify the relevant dimensions of technology or to measure it, although it is clear that there are large differences between, for example, personal computers and mainframes. The task to which the IT is applied also makes a difference. For example, a payroll system has greatly different functions and is likely to have different effects than an electronic mail system does. An early common prediction was that the widespread use of IT would replace most routine workers, thus causing massive unemployment, and in fact, systems have often been cost justified on the basis of reducing the number of employees. For instance, Lee (2000) cited a study of 33 companies in which 90 percent cut the number of employees (one company laying off thousands of workers) or increased their output with the same number of staff. The prediction of an overall reduction in employment due to the use of IT is difficult to support empirically, however, as most studies have, examined only a few firms or a few industries, and more comprehensive census data are difficult to interpret unequivocally. Furthermore, other factors may more strongly affect employment, thereby masking the effect of using IT. In fact, it is interesting to note that IT may, in some cases, increase rather than decrease employment. For instance, Barney, Fuerst, and Mata (1995) listed several means by which the use of IT may affect clerical employment. First, computers might be used simply to replace clerks. Second, the use of IT may itself create some new jobs, such as that of data entry clerks or positions in the data-processing department. Third, the use of computers may make the firm more efficient, increasing the demand for its products and thus indirectly its total level of employment. Finally, coordination may be viewed as a complementary input in the production process. For instance, if IT makes coordination more effective and less expensive, the demand for coordination and therefore for both IT and the clerks who provide it may increase. This analysis holds only for coordination functions, however, suggesting that clerks employed in production functions are more likely to be displaced by the use of IT. The total effect of using IT on the employment of managers may be less, as fewer managers are involved in production than in coordination. The jobs of most managers are so far less affected by the automation of production functions than are those of clerks. In this case, the smaller number of production workers and the unchanged number of managers and other coordination workers indicate that the administrative intensity (the ratio of administrative to production workers) may actually rise if IT is used to automate production functions. The use of IT would affect the jobs of workers in production more than those in coordination, again increasing administrative intensity. A number of studies agree with this general prediction. For instance, Kudyba and Hoptroff (2001) found that an increased use of computers is associated with higher levels of administrative intensity. One of Kudyba and Hoptroff (2001) original predictions is that the number of levels of hierarchy in organizations will decrease as computers are used to perform the functions of those middle managers. So far, however, there is no conclusive evidence that this prediction has been realized. Changes in levels of hierarchy seem to depend on the way the IT is used, and different studies have reported opposite findings. U. S.  Department of Commerce (1998), for example, discussed firms that are reducing bureaucratic functions with computers and thus trimming the number of levels of hierarchy. Another commonly discussed possibility is that centralizing decision making is inherently desirable to managers and that decentralization takes place only because no single person can control the necessary resources (e. g. , information, employees) because of limitations in humans information-processing capacity. These constraints force managers to delegate control over some decisions in order to focus on more important issues. The use of IT may lessen these constraints in two ways: first, by providing easier access to and facilitating more complete analyses of data regarding the firms operations and, second, by providing a mechanism to program jobs and to control workers. The use of IT may thus permit decisions to be made at a higher level and ensure their implementation by subordinates. Alternatively, a manager may want to encourage the decentralization of decisions in order to increase workers autonomy. Some authors have predicted that IT will encourage greater participation in decisions by lower-level workers. IT provides ways to control the premise of the decision, by allowing more equal access to data or by controlling the way in which a decision is made, and to monitor the results, by providing quicker feedback. Given the ability to ensure that decisions are made consistent with their wishes, managers may be willing to delegate the actual decision. Systems used to provide individual support may also encourage decentralization, as they enlarge an individuals capacity to analyze data or enforce the use of common decision analysis tools. IT can also support lateral ties between low-level workers, allowing them more easily to exchange information and thus coordinate their own activities. Another possible impact of using IT is the development of more differentiated or segmented jobs. Differentiation is difficult to define or measure precisely. Researchers in this area have measured, for example, the number of job titles used in a given organization or the number of different departments. It seems certain that using IT will require some new jobs and departments, such as a data-processing or telecommunications group, if only to manage the complex technology. Using IT in newspapers did lead to the creation of new specialties, such as data-processing manager. It is less clear how using IT will affect other functions in an organization. IT could lead to a reintegration of some tasks (e. g. , handling all aspects of issuing a letter of credit, instead of a single step in a multistep process). Such a reintegration would minimize the differentiation between jobs or departments. Or a higher level of functional specialization could raise the degree of differentiation. The use of IT can affect the level of formality in an organization in many ways. Most older centralized transaction-processing systems are inflexible. Because such systems can do things in only one way, rules are needed to limit actions to this process. The system itself embodies many rules about how the job should be done, again substituting the use of rules and regulations for individual decision making. A system may also make it easier to spot errors and identify their sources, thus further controlling work. Using IT may encourage the evaluation of outcomes instead of process and make the enforcement of rules both easier and less necessary by more quickly providing feedback about the outcomes of actions, thus decreasing formality. Finally, because smaller organizations are typically less formal, IT may lessen formality by reducing organizational size. The use of IT for individual support or for communications may well have different effects. On the one hand, using telecommunications to allow workers to work at home resulted in less personal interaction and therefore more formal evaluations. On the other hand, using IT could lead to less formalized interactions. IT can affect the pattern and content of organizational communications in many ways. First, the use of IT may lead to changes in the structure of an organization, leading to new patterns of communication or changes in the content or quantity of existing kinds of communication (U. S. Department of Commerce 1998). Integrating jobs, a possible outcome of using IT, can lead to fewer needs for communication, as a single person can do the job with no need to communicate with co-workers. For example, storing transaction data in a commonly accessible data base may make requests for information unnecessary. Such changes may also affect the level of social interactions. Some researchers claim that by integrating tasks, the use of IT eliminates the need and opportunity for workers to interact. For example, Ahituv and Giladi (1993) in a study of using electronic mail, discovered a decrease in the amount of face-to-face communication. Social isolation will be further increased if workers can work at home instead of in an office. On the other hand, the use of IT can lead to more frequent personal contacts, suggesting that different uses of IT will have very different effects. Second, IT may be used to provide new media for communication, such as electronic mail or computer conferencing, again leading to new patterns of communication. These kinds of systems have been somewhat more heavily studied, and some important characteristics of these systems have been identified. For example, computerized media may be preferable to other kinds of communication because they can be faster and cheaper. Furthermore, computerized communication has a low incremental cost per message; that is, it costs the sender about the same to send a message to one person as it does to two; if the system supports mailing lists, it may be as easy to send mail to hundreds of people, specifying only the name of the list. This form of bulk mailing eliminates the need for secretaries to duplicate and mail multiple copies of memos. Finally, electronic mail or conferencing are asynchronous: Only one of the recipients needs to be present at a time, making communications easier to arrange (e. g. , across time zones). By thus reducing the cost of communications, IT may make coordination less expensive, with the possible results just enumerated. Such uses of IT will be necessary to allow organizations to deal with the more complex and more turbulent post-industrial environment, with more available information. The ability to address communications by other than the name of the recipient (e. g. , to a mailing list for electronic mail or to a specific conference for computer conferencing) means that a sender may not know the person with whom he or she is communicating, but only the area of interest. Computers can be used to support this sort of communication. By providing new communications channels, computerized media may facilitate the formation of â€Å"weak† (acquaintance) ties. People become aware of one another and one anothers work, even though they have not met in person, thereby suggesting that the computer system allows these contacts to develop more easily. Easier formation of weak ties may also lead to a shift from hierarchical to â€Å"all-channel† communications in companies. Some studies have shown an initial increase in vertical communication, followed by a shift to more evenly distributed communications as new horizontal links are formed and the formal reporting system begins to decline in (relative) importance. One way that IT can affect the vertical distribution of power in a firm is by changing who has access to information. For example, a computer system may provide an easier way to monitor the results of subordinates actions and to speed the flow of information upward in the company, thus centralizing power. IT can also be used to decentralize, thus moving power down in the organization. For example, a universally accessible data base can reduce top managements monopoly on companywide information. The use of IT may thus change the basis of power by making information a less scarce resource. To the extent that vertical power is thereby equalized, other sources of power will become more important. The use of IT can also change the balance of power between groups at the same organizational level of a firm. For example, a common computer system may lead to greater data sharing and thus power equalization between groups at the same level. This cooperation may then lead to greater coordination, allowing better performance, as the two groups can jointly optimize, rather than each trying to do the best it can alone. As we mentioned, using IT can greatly increase the power of the group that controls the technology. IT may become critical to the firms operation: most banks, for example, would be completely unable to function if their computer systems failed. The group controlling the computer systems may also control access to data, a potentially scarce resource. The IT group thus may be in a position to mediate between other groups, for example, by setting corporate standards for computer equipment or software, thus defining the functions available even to users of personal computers. In the information-processing view, IT has a major effect, by providing cheaper coordination and thus making coordination-intensive forms more practical. A company might take advantage of economies of scale by creating larger functional departments, using IT to provide the necessary coordination among different groups. For example, different divisions of a company could all use data stored in one centralized data base, rather than each having partial information or passing information among themselves. Alternatively, a company could use marketlike structures, again coordinated by using IT. Airlines, for example, now provide an electronic marketplace for selling tickets. The era into which we are now entering will see qualitative changes wrought by information technology. No longer will information technology be simply overlaid onto existing business; it will now be used to restructure the enterprise. This restructuring is taking place between as well as within organizations. The boundary between customer and supplier is becoming difficult to define as electronic integration blurs the distinction. Within organizations, distinctions between information technology and production technology and between information workers and production workers are becoming increasingly difficult to maintain. The electronic communications system occupies the critical path. Communication by electronic means is essential to interorganizational integration and can proceed only at the pace permitted by communication technology. As we have seen, there appear to be few inevitable results of the use of IT and many possible outcomes, depending on factors such as the organizational context, the type of IT used, and managements motivations. Furthermore, the effects of IT are not deterministic: similar systems can and do have widely different effects, depending on the particulars of the organization and the intentions of the managers who deploy them. IT has come to play an important role in virtually all large successful organizations in relation to computerized accounting systems, word processing, filing information in databases, modelling the future of the business through spreadsheets, maintaining stock control, and so on. But most of this would only indicate that IT was an important service function like personnel or accounts. Even so, it is worth pointing out that in order to compete on equal terms with other firms performing with equal efficiency and economy IT has become an essential tool of modern management.